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Lewis, Eva, Steenson, Simon, Haslam, Richard P., McDonald, Emma, Sharman, Matthew, Traka, Maria, Stanton, Alice, Napier, Johnathan A., Sweeting, Anna, Saleh, Rasha N. M., Hornberger, Michael 
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2214-3788, Givens, Ian, Calder, Philip C. and Minihane, Anne Marie ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9042-4226
(2025)
Sustainable and available sources of omega-3 fatty acids for health: Are the current dietary recommendations, food sources and legislation fit for purpose?:Are the current dietary recommendations, food sources and legislation fit for purpose?
Nutrition Research Reviews, 38 (2).
pp. 843-858.
ISSN 0954-4224
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Abstract
The health benefits of the long-chain omega-3 PUFA, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) have been known for over 50 years and underpin the UK population recommendation to consume > 450 mg EPA+DHA per day. These recommendations, last revised in 2004, are based mainly on epidemiological evidence. Much research has been conducted in the interim. Most RCTs use doses of EPA+DHA of 840 mg per day or more. For anti-inflammatory, triglyceride lowering and anti-hypertensive effects, > 1.5 g EPA+DHA per day is needed. Cognitive benefits are also likely to require these higher intakes. Farmed salmon now contains considerably less EPA+DHA relative to wild-fish, and relative to farmed fish of 20 years ago, meaning one portion per week will no longer provide the equivalent of 450 mg EPA+DHA per day. Oily fish alone can only provide a fraction of the EPA+DHA required to meet global needs. Furthermore, there is low global oily fish consumption, with typical intakes of < 200 mg EPA+DHA per day, and limited intakes in vegans and vegetarians. Therefore, there is an urgent need for affordable, acceptable, alternative EPA+DHA sources, including vegan/vegetarian friendly options, such as bio-enriched poultry, red meat and milk products; fortified foods; enriched oilseeds e.g. genetically modified Camelina sativa; algae and algal oils; and approaches which enhance endogenous EPA/DHA synthesis. In this narrative review we suggest that current EPA+DHA intake recommendations are too low, consider EPA/DHA from a holistic health-sustainability perspective, and identify research, policy and knowledge mobilisation areas which need attention.
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