Lewis, E., Steenson, S., Haslam, R. P., McDonald, E., Sharman, M., Traka, M., Stanton, A., Napier, J. A., Sweeting, A., Saleh, R. N. M., Hornberger, M., Givens, D. I., Calder, P. C. and Minihane, A. M. (2025) Sustainable and available sources of omega-3 fatty acids for health: Are the current dietary recommendations, food sources and legislation fit for purpose? Nutrition Research Reviews. ISSN 0954-4224
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Abstract
The health benefits of the long-chain omega-3 PUFA, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) have been known for over 50 years and underpin the UK population recommendation to consume > 450 mg EPA+DHA per day. These recommendations, last revised in 2004, are based mainly on epidemiological evidence. Much research has been conducted in the interim. Most RCTs use doses of EPA+DHA of 840 mg per day or more. For anti-inflammatory, triglyceride lowering and anti-hypertensive effects, > 1.5 g EPA+DHA per day is needed. Cognitive benefits are also likely to require these higher intakes. Farmed salmon now contains considerably less EPA+DHA relative to wild-fish, and relative to farmed fish of 20 years ago, meaning one portion per week will no longer provide the equivalent of 450 mg EPA+DHA per day. Oily fish alone can only provide a fraction of the EPA+DHA required to meet global needs. Furthermore, there is low global oily fish consumption, with typical intakes of < 200 mg EPA+DHA per day, and limited intakes in vegans and vegetarians. Therefore, there is an urgent need for affordable, acceptable, alternative EPA+DHA sources, including vegan/vegetarian friendly options, such as bio-enriched poultry, red meat and milk products; fortified foods; enriched oilseeds e.g. genetically modified Camelina sativa; algae and algal oils; and approaches which enhance endogenous EPA/DHA synthesis. In this narrative review we suggest that current EPA+DHA intake recommendations are too low, consider EPA/DHA from a holistic health-sustainability perspective, and identify research, policy and knowledge mobilisation areas which need attention.
Item Type: | Article |
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Faculty \ School: | Faculty of Science > School of Biological Sciences Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences > School of Health Sciences Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences > Norwich Medical School |
UEA Research Groups: | Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences > Research Groups > Nutrition and Preventive Medicine Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences > Research Centres > Norwich Institute for Healthy Aging Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences > Research Groups > Mental Health Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences > Research Centres > Lifespan Health Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences > Research Groups > Cardiovascular and Metabolic Health |
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Depositing User: | LivePure Connector |
Date Deposited: | 30 Jun 2025 12:30 |
Last Modified: | 30 Jun 2025 19:30 |
URI: | https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/99784 |
DOI: | 10.1017/S0954422425100127 |
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