International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology
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Soccer referees’ experience of conflict and conflict management training practice: a scoping review
Murray Grant, Silija Anna Skulstad Urang, Simon Hammond & Laura Biggart
To cite this article: Murray Grant, Silija Anna Skulstad Urang, Simon Hammond & Laura Biggart (16 Feb 2026): Soccer referees’ experience of conflict and conflict management training practice: a scoping review, International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, DOI: 10.1080/1612197X.2026.2628573
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2026.2628573
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REVIEW ARTICLE
Soccer referees’ experience of conflict and conflict management training practice: a scoping review
Murray Granta, Silija Anna Skulstad Urangb, Simon Hammondc and Laura Biggarta
aSchool of Psychology, University of East Anglia (UEA), Norwich, UK; bSchool of Sport Science, University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway; cSchool of Education and Lifelong Learning, University of East Anglia (UEA), Norwich, UK

ARTICLE HISTORY
Received 21 January 2025
Accepted 23 January 2026
KEYWORDS
Conflicts; conflict management training; soccer; referees; scoping review

ABSTRACT
Soccer is one of the most participated in sports in the world, and referees ensure the laws are abided by. Growing attention has been given to researching the psychological aspects of refereeing because of the awareness of how refereeing performance is impacted. This scoping review aimed to map the extent of peer- reviewed and grey literature that identifies conflicts and conflict management training for soccer referees. This scoping review identified various events, perceived conflicts, and outcomes of conflicts experienced by soccer referees. No outright conflict management interventions were identified. This scoping review is the first to investigate soccer refereeing conflict management and illustrates the need to understand potential links between events surrounding a game, the conflicts and outcomes. It also highlights the need to understand what conflicts underrepresented demographics face, what conflict management approaches are used, the impact different approaches have on the game, and maps out a research agenda.
Introduction
Soccer referees represent governing bodies globally and are called upon to make quick decisions. These decisions must consider laws of the game, contextual judgement, interpersonal management, and positioning (Mascarenhas et al., 2005; Slack et al., 2013). Such decisions are often made in time-sensitive and pressured contexts. Decisions can have implications including promotion, relegation and related economic repercussions (Cleland et al., 2018; Mascarenhas et al., 2005; Slack et al., 2013). It is vital that referees are physically and psychologically agile to balance the ever-changing needs of a fixture and communicate effectively with all stakeholders. Even with high levels of experience, skill and good intentions, conflict between referees and stakeholders, such as players and coaches, is inevitable. Effective conflict management approaches are, therefore,
CONTACT Murray Grant xdt13njc@uea.ac.uk
© 2026 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, and is not altered, transformed, or built upon in any way. The terms on which this article has been published allow the posting of the Accepted Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent.
high on the list of skills needed to be a soccer referee (Cleland et al., 2018; Mascarenhas et al., 2005; Skirbekk, 2024; Slack et al., 2013).
Conflicts, such as verbal and physical abuse, experienced between referees, players, coaches, spectators and their negative impacts, such as referee attrition across sports, have been documented (Cleland et al., 2018; Downward et al., 2023; Webb, Dicks et al., 2020; Webb, Rayner, et al., 2020; Webb et al., 2023). A build-up of behavioural problems within England, one of which is referee abuse (England Football, 2023), saw the English Football Association’s (EFA) Respect campaign launched in the 2008/2009 season to raise awareness of abuse directed at referees. Subsequent surveys investigating abuse of referees have been conducted by The EFA in 2015 (N = 2056) and Referees’ Association (RA) in 2022 (N = 927) (Cleland et al., 2018). The EFA’s investigation into the effectiveness of their “Respect” programme highlighted a short-term awareness for all game participants to be respectful towards referees; however, the translation into longer-term behaviour change appears to be minimal, with the RA’s 2022 follow-up study presenting similar levels of abuse reported by referees. The 2015 EFA survey showed 42% of referees had taken their basic training within five years or less, suggesting a largely inexperienced workforce (Cleland et al., 2015). From survey findings, Cleland et al. (2015) highlighted that more consideration could be provided to mitigate confrontation and difficult situations as part of the initial basic referee course, equipping the inexperienced workforce to deal better with and prevent abuse. Dell et al. (2016) also support this with their finding that referees felt underprepared for abusive experiences, which affected their self-confidence.
In summary, evidence in recent peer-reviewed literature demonstrates varying conflicts referees’ need to navigate as part of their role (Cleland et al., 2018; Downward et al., 2023; Potrac et al., 2022; Slack et al., 2014; Webb, Dicks et al., 2020; Webb, Rayner et al., 2020; Webb et al., 2023). Peer-reviewed literature is supplemented by research conducted by governing and professional bodies, which also confirms that soccer referees are subject to many conflicts (Cleland et al., 2018). Despite more work highlighting referee abuse, the breadth of conflicts faced by referees and the training practices in place to support referees’ conflict management skills have yet to be synthesised. Moving forward, this may highlight clearer lines of inquiry for primary research.
Aim
To address this lacuna, a scoping review of international literature was undertaken to map the breadth of available evidence, identify knowledge gaps, and synthesise heterogeneous peer-reviewed and grey literature sources reporting on the conflicts faced by soccer referees and conflict management training designed to negate conflicts. Including grey literature was important as prior knowledge indicates the presence of potentially useful sources on soccer governing bodies’ websites that may not have been peer- reviewed. The research questions this scoping review addressed were:
(1)		What is the extent of peer-reviewed and grey literature available that identifies conflicts faced by soccer referees?
(2)		What is the extent of peer-reviewed and grey literature available that identifies conflict management training for soccer referees?
Methods
Protocol
A preliminary search of Google Scholar, SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO, the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews and JBI Evidence Synthesis was conducted, and no current or underway systematic reviews or scoping reviews on the topic were identified. To address the objectives, the scoping review used a JBI scoping review protocol.
Eligibility criteria
The scoping review considered peer-reviewed articles and grey literature published in English, addressing football or soccer referees, since 2004. The scoping review excluded peer-reviewed articles and grey literature not printed in the English language, text (i.e., newspapers and websites), opinion, undergraduate and master’s papers (see Table 1 for full eligibility criteria).
Information sources
The search strategy checked the databases, Google Scholar, SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO, Web of Science for peer-reviewed research, and Google for grey literature using the search strategy outlined in the protocol.
Search
An initial search strategy was developed by authors one and two. An academic librarian reviewed and advised on the final search strategy as per the Peer Review of Electronic Search Strategies (PRESS) (McGowan et al., 2016). Each database was searched using the search strategy by authors one and two. An example of the key words and phrases used was Google Scholar = “football” or “soccer” and “referee*” or “official*” and “conflict” or “conflict management” or “player management” or “game management” or “managing interactions” or “interactions” or “anger management” or “communication” or “communication style” or “abuse”. This strategy was used to search across databases for peer-reviewed and grey sources instead of targeting specific soccer governing body websites or hand-searching through grey literature to keep a consistent approach. Searches were completed on 14th March 2024.
The search strategy highlighted a range of peer-reviewed literature, varying in quality. The most common flaw was under-detailed methodologies, making it challenging to identify methods. The search also highlighted a scintilla of grey literature to be checked against the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The grey literature identified was
Table 1. Scoping review inclusion/exclusion criteria table.
Inclusion criteria	Exclusion criteria
Peer-reviewed and grey literature	Text, opinion, undergraduate and master’s papers
Football or soccer referees	Sport Officials
Publish in English	Published in languages other than English
Published since 2004	Published before 2004
from text and opinion sources, putting forward speculative information only. No grey literature from governing body websites met our inclusion criteria.
Selection of sources evidence
Authors one and two independently searched databases. When sources met the inclusion criteria at the title and abstract level, full-text versions were obtained. Sources were added to a central folder, which had sub-folders to distinguish what each author had collected, and from which database. Initial searches of titles and abstracts from authors one and two were screened against the inclusion criteria. Subsequently, sources were recorded on a spreadsheet to highlight their title, authors, publication date, and what database they were from; duplicates were identified and removed at this stage. Remaining sources had their title’ and abstracts screened against the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Full-text sources were then screened against the eligibility criteria independently by authors one and two, and excluded sources were discussed and agreed upon.
Data charting process
Information from included studies was extracted using the data charting instrument outlined in the scoping review protocol by author one (Grant et al., 2024).
Data items
The data charting instrument detailed in Grant et al. (2024) extracted the following data: title, authors, year of publication, type of publication, origin country of data, methodology used, participant characteristics (e.g., number of participants, refereeing level of participants, sex of participants, age of participants), and contextual factors (e.g., conflicts and identified training protocols and key results).
Synthesis of results
As shown in Table 2, charted articles were synthesised into a matrix, which mapped methodological characteristics. Each methodological characteristic was determined by the noted method within articles, e.g., an article noting quantitative measures only was classed as quantitative. The participant’s country of origin was determined by where each paper had collected their data from, e.g., an article’s data collected from participants in Spain, the data were classed Spanish. The number of participants in papers was recorded; this produced the age range of participants across articles. Refereeing level classification was not universal, which meant an understanding of each country’s classification was needed. This enabled the participant’s refereeing level to be categorised as professional (refereeing is the participant’s main employment) or amateur (referee’s main employment is not refereeing). The sex of participants was determined by the number of participantswithin the article. From this, a percentage was calculated, and then the percentage from each study was added together to provide a mean percentage. This calculation method was replicated to determine the mean age of participants.

Table 2. Data Synthesis Matrix.
Data synthesis matrix	
	Data collection method	Participant country origin data	Number of participants	Participant’s refereeing level	Mean sex of participants	Mean age of participants	
Quan = 9	Survey = 7	Across Europe = 1	Between	Pro = 3	Unknown = 2	Unknown = 3	
	Observation = 1 England/Canada = 1
Live Stats = 1 England = 1
England/Spain/
Australia = 1
France/Netherlands
= 1
Germany = 1
Norway = 1
Spain = 1
USA = 1	42–3085	Amateur = 4
Pro & Amateur
= 1
Not Given = 1	100% Female =
1
Rest = 95%
Male	Mean = 36.5	
Qual = 8	Open = 1	England = 5	Between	Pro = 3	100% Female =	Unknown = 1	
	Semi = 4
Interview = 2	Romania = 1
Spain = 1
Sweden = 1	4–15	Amateur = 1
Pro & Amateur = 4	1
Rest = 85% Male	Mean = 35.75	
Mixed = 5	Likert Scale = 3
Closed
Questions = 1
Open-Ended
Questions = 3
Interviews = 2
Document
Analysis = 1	England = 1
France = 1
Netherlands = 1
Unknown = 1
USA = 1	Between 9 and–3408	Pro = 0
Amateur = 2
Pro & Amateur
= 3	91% Male	Mean = 43	
Other = 3	Qual Review = 2 Quan Case Study = 1	England = 1
Scotland = 1
Unknown = 1	Unknown = 3	Pro = 2
Amateur = 0
Pro & Amateur = 1	Unknown = 3	Unknown = 3	

Concurrently with this, the data charting instrument enabled the identification, summary, and tracking of which source had identified which conflict.
Results
Selection of sources of evidence
As shown in Figure 1, searches identified eighty-eight sources. After duplicates were removed, fifty-four sources were screened at the title and abstract level. Fourteen sources were then excluded for covering the incorrect context, leaving forty full-text sources to be screened against the eligibility criteria. Fifteen sources were then excluded from the study because of the following reasons: officials from sports other than soccer were included within the data, a working paper with no results, not investigating the topic of interest, investigating all sports officials as one group, a master’s thesis, source out of date range. This left twenty-five studies to be included within the scoping review.
Characteristics of sources of evidence
The scoping review identified several methodological approaches: quantitative (n = 9) (Dawson et al., 2022; Deyner-Simmons, 2010; Downward et al., 2023; Fuente et al., 2019; Johansen & Haugen, 2013; Kempa & Rusch, 2019; Lex et al., 2015; Voight, 2009; Wolfson &

Figure 1. Scoping review selection of sources.
Neave, 2007), qualitative (n = 8) (Antonie, 2023; Cleland et al., 2015; Dell et al., 2016; Devìs- Devìs et al., 2021; Friman et al., 2004; Forbes et al., 2015; Parsons & Bairner, 2015; Slack et al., 2014), mixed methods (n = 5) (Cleland et al., 2018; Deal et al., 2018; Potrac et al., 2022; Webb et al., 2020; Zarrabi-Kashani, 2013) and other approaches (n = 3), two secondary studies (Mascarenhas et al., 2006; Samuel, 2015) and a case study (Mathers & Brodie, 2011).
The nine quantitative papers highlighted that participants experienced either psychological conflict (e.g., questioning, intimidation, aggressive behaviours) or physical conflict (e.g., invasion of personal space, pushing or grabbing and physical blows). The main method of data collection was surveys (n = 7) (Dawson et al., 2022; Deyner-Simmons, 2010; Downward et al., 2023; Johansen & Haugen, 2013; Lex et al., 2015; Voight, 2009; Wolfson & Neave, 2007), and two came from observations made quantitative via record sheet of behaviours (Fuente et al., 2019), and one that recorded from live statistics during games (Kempa & Rusch, 2019).
There was variation in the data’s country of origin: England (n = 3) (Downward et al., 2023; Deyner-Simmons, 2010; Wolfson & Neave, 2007), Spain (n = 2) (Fuente et al., 2019; Deyner-Simmons, 2010), Norway (n = 1) (Johansen & Haugen, 2013), The Netherlands (n = 1) (Dawson et al., 2022), France (n = 1) (Dawson et al., 2022), the USA (n = 1) (Voight, 2009), Canada (n = 1) (Downward et al., 2023), Australia (n = 1) (Deyner- Simmons, 2010), and Across Europe (n = 1) (Kempa & Rusch, 2019).
Various sample sizes were included, ranging from 42 to 3085. Downward et al. (2023), Fuente et al. (2019), Voight (2009) and Wolfson & Neave (2007) focused on amateur level referees, Johansen & Haugen (2013), Lex et al. (2015), and Kempa & Rusch (2019), focused on the professional level, Dawson et al. (2022) gained data from all participation levels and Deyner-Simmons, (2010) did not specify refereeing level. Lex et al. (2015) had 100% female participants, Dawson et al. (2022), Deyner-Simmons, (2010), Downward et al. (2023), Johansen & Haugen, (2013), and Voight, (2009) had an average of 95% male samples. Fuente et al. (2019), Kempa & Rusch (2019) and Wolfson & Neave, (2007) did not report the sex of their participants. The mean age amongst Downward et al. (2023), Johansen & Haugen, (2013), Lex et al., 2015, Voight, (2009) and Wolfson & Neave, (2007) was 36.5 yrs. Dawson et al. (2022), Deyner-Simmons, (2010), Fuente et al. (2019) and Kempa & Rusch (2019) did not report the age of their participants.
The eight qualitative papers either used open or semi-structured interviewing to yield data. Data came from England (n = 5) (Cleland et al., 2015; Dell et al., 2016; Forbes et al., 2015; Parsons & Bairner, 2015; Slack et al., 2014), Spain (n = 1) (Devìs-Devìs et al., 2021), Sweden (n = 1) (Friman et al., 2004) and Romania (n = 1) (Antonie, 2023). The number of participants interviewed was between four and fifteen. Forbes et al. (2015) focused on amateur referees, Antonie, (2023), Friman et al. (2004), Slack et al. (2014) and Cleland et al. (2015), Dell et al. (2016), Devìs-Devìs et al. (2021) and Parsons & Bairner (2015), incorporating all levels. Forbes et al. (2015) used a 100% female sample, whereas Antonie (2023), Cleland et al. (2015), Dell et al. (2016), Devìs-Devìs et al. (2021), Friman et al. (2004), Parsons & Bairner, (2015) and Slack et al. (2014) had a combined average of ∼85% male participants. The age range of participants was reported by Dell et al. (2016), Devìs-Devìs et al. (2021), Friman et al. (2004), Forbes et al. (2015), Parsons & Bairner, (2015) and Slack et al. (2014). This provided a range of 16–70 years and a mean of 35.8 years. Antonie (2023) and Cleland et al. (2015) did not report age.
The other sources included within the scoping review were of mixed methods (n = 5) (Cleland et al., 2018; Deal et al., 2018; Potrac et al., 2022; Webb et al., 2020; Zarrabi-Kashani, 2013), secondary study papers (n = 2) (Mascarenhas et al., 2006; Samuel, 2015) and a case study (n = 1) (Mathers & Brodie, 2011). Mascarenhas et al. (2006) did not specify what country their data came from. Other sources used data from USA (n = 1) (Zarrabi-Kashani, 2013), France (n = 1) (Webb et al., 2020), The Netherlands (n = 1) (Webb et al., 2020), Scotland (n= 1) (Mathers & Brodie, 2011) and England (n= 3) (Cleland et al., 2018; Potrac et al., 2022; Samuel, 2015). The number of participants ranged from 9 to 3408 (Cleland et al., 2018; Deal et al., 2018; Potrac et al., 2022; Webb et al., 2020; Zarrabi-Kashani, 2013). Deal et al. (2018), Webb et al. (2020) and Zarrabi-Kashani (2013) incorporated all levels of participation (n = 3), Potrac et al. (2022) and Cleland et al. (2018) focused on amateur levels (n = 2). There was a high average proportion of male participants used (91%), ages ranged from 16 to 81, with a mean age of 43 years (Cleland et al., 2018; Deal et al., 2018; Potrac et al., 2022; Webb et al., 2020; Zarrabi- Kashani, 2013).
Synthesis of all studies identified a lower representation of female and young referees. Sixteen sources had less than 10% female participants (Antonie, 2023; Cleland et al., 2015; Cleland et al., 2018; Dawson et al., 2022; Dell et al., 2016; Deyner-Simmons, 2010; Downward et al., 2023; Fuente et al., 2019; Kempa & Rusch, 2019; Parsons & Bairner, 2015; Potrac et al., 2022; Voight, 2009; Slack et al., 2014; Webb et al., 2020; Wolfson & Neave, 2007; Zarrabi-Kashani, 2013). Finally, the only sources to collect data from referees under the age of 18 years old were Cleland et al. (2018), Forbes et al. (2015), Potrac et al. (2022), and Webb et al. (2020).
Results of individual sources of evidence (Table 3)
Synthesis of results
Results from the scoping review highlight conflicts that soccer referees face at all levels of the game. The scoping review identified that soccer referees experience conflicts when controlling game protocols (Mascarenhas et al., 2006; Slack et al., 2014), stakeholders wanting explanations for decisions (Deyner-Simmons, 2010; Johansen & Haugen, 2013;
co
Table 3. Results of individual sources of evidence.
Citation	Methodological approach	Country origin of data	Participants	Refereeing level	Sex	Age	Conflict type	Intervention	Key results	2
•	
Dawson et al. (2022)	Quan	Holland France	Ho = 1210
Fr =3085	Amateur & Professional	Fr = ~97% Μ
Holland
= ~99%
Male	Not Given	Psychological conflict, physical conflict	X	70% of French and 50% Dutch referees face verbal abuse. 17% of French and 15% Dutch referees face verbal abuse.	> Z
• >	
Deyner- Simmons (2010)	Quan	Australia Spain United Kingdom	Aus = 675
Sp = 537 UK=	Not Given	100% Male	Not Given	Psychological conflict	X	Referees are deemed fairer when they communicate calmly and explain decisions. This does not impact the likelihood of questioning.		
Dell et al. (2016)	Qual	England	N = 12	Amateur &
SemiProfessional	91% Male	20-70	Psychological conflict, physical conflict	X	Lack of basic training around intimidation or abuse of referees. Call for conflict management training.		
Downward et al. (2023)	Quan	England
Canada	Eng = 485 Can = 410	Amateur	91% Male	M = 45	Psychological conflict, physical conflict	X	Amateur referees face a variety of conflicts which impact their well-being and increase their intention to quit.		
Zarrabi-Kashani, (2013)	Mixed	USA	Ν = 300	Amateur & Professional	90% Male	M = 40	Psychological conflict, physical conflict	X	USA soccer referees face loads of inter- and intrapersonal conflicts.		
Mascarenhas et al. (2006)	Secondary
Research	Various	Not Given	Amateur & Professional	Not Given	Not Given	Psychological conflict	X	Referees' demands are wide in scope, and they are not just interpersonal conflicts; they can also have intrapersonal conflict for deciding whether to get involved with a decision or not.		
Devis-Devis et al. (2021)	Qual	Spain	N = 8	Amateur & Professional	50% Male	19-34	Psychological conflict, physical conflict	X	The insults and verbal assaults on referees are constant and can be personal, sexist and racist in nature.		
Friman et al. (2004)	Qual	Sweden	N = 7	Amateur	60% Male	18-53	Psychological conflict	X	Swedish soccer referees face various interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts.		
Slack et al. (2014)	Qualitative	England	N = 15	Professional	100% Male	M = 42	Psychological conflict	X	Conflicts change for professional referees depending on whether it is pre-match, during or post-match.		
Potrac et al. (2022)	Mixed	England	N = 271	Amateur	94% Male	M = 41	Psychological conflict, physical conflict	X	Referees in England are subject to abusive scenarios, perceive a lack of support, and feel underprepared for the conflicts associated with the role, making them quit the role.		
Samuel (2015)	Secondary	England	Not Given	Professional	Not Given	Not Given	Psychological conflict	•	Theoretical performance framework created for elite football referees.		

Fuente et al.	Quan	Spain	N = 119	Amateur	Not Given	Not Given	Psychological	X	The paper argues that from observer reports, aggression	
(2019)
Wolfson &	Quan	England	Ν = 42	Amateur	Not Given	M = 40	conflict
Psychological	X	from fans, coaches and players does not interrelate with each other. However, from the referee reports, they do interrelate with each other. This confirms that referees face protests and conflicts, but that their perception may differ from those of other participating groups.
Referees are subject to conflicts, but they have	
Neave (2007) Kempa & Rusch	Quan	Across	N = 220	Professional	Not Given	Not Given	conflict Psychological	X	developed significant coping strategies.
Referees give more dissent cards to teams who are losing	
(2019) Mathers &	Case Study	Europe Scotland	Not Given	Not Given	Not Given	Not Given	conflict Psychological	•	and who are playing away.
This shows a mental skill intervention used in	
Brodie (2011)
Lex et al. (2015)	Quan	Germany	N = 50	Professional	100% Female	M = 26	conflict
Psychological	X	professional football that facilitated greater performance across three seasons.
Vocalisations do not impact if a foul is given, but raise_	
Cleland et al.	Quan	England	N = 2056	Amateur	96% Male	14-56	conflict Psychological	X	sanction levels if a foul decision has been awarded.	2
Despite the implementation of the respect campaign,	2	
(2018)
Voight (2009)	Quan	USA	N = 191	Amateur	96% Male	M = 40	conflict, physical conflict
Psychological	X	amateur-level referees still face various conflicts.> Ο Amateur referees from the USA are subject to various	<	
Webb, Dicks et	Mixed	Holland	Ho = 1229	Amateur &	Ho = 98%	16-65	conflict, physical conflict
Psychological	X	forms of conflicts.	•
δ
C Lack of training for intergroup conflict, better	-	
al. (2020)
Johansen &	Quan	France Norway	Fr = 3408
N = 83	Professional
Professional	Male
Fr = 96%
Male
87% Male	M = 33	conflict, physical conflict
Psychological	X	collaboration with assistants, and general conflicts are	>
reported.	q
Anxiety levels increase as part of questioning and	q	
Haugen (2013)
Antonie (2023)	Qual	Romania	N = 5	Professional	100% Male	Not Given	conflict
Psychological	X	aggression.	=
•
Elite referees may not have the same conflicts or	O	
Cleland et al.	Qual	England	N = 11	Amateur &	90% Male	Not Given	conflict Psychological	X	stressors as amateurs.	X
Lack of behaviour change because of the Respect>	
(2015)
Forbes et al.	Qual	England	N = 4	Professional
Amateur	100% Female	16-33	conflict, physical conflict
Psychological	X	campaign, potentially a 75% dropout rate, a wide	0
range of conflicts reported.	0
Sexist comments/abuse every game. Female referees just•	
(2015) Deal et al.	Mixed	Not Given	N = 9	Amateur &	72% Male	M = 47	conflict Psychological	X	want to be viewed as referees, not as 'female referees.	2
More conflicts at the lower level of the game.	2	
(2018)
Parsons &	Qual	England	N = 12	Professional
Amateur &	100% Male	21-61	conflict, physical conflict
Psychological	X	O
Amateur referees report low levels of enjoyment. Over a quarter of referees in 2010 were 14-19; the ages of	F
20-24 decreased 579% between 2007 and 2010.o	
Bairner (2015)				Professional			conflict, physical conflict			

Kempa & Rusch, 2019; Mathers & Brodie, 2011; Slack et al., 2014; Wolfson & Neave, 2007), disagreements with refereeing colleagues (Antonie, 2023; Samuel, 2015; Webb et al., 2020; Zarrabi-Kashani, 2013), media involvement (Antonie, 2023; Friman et al., 2004; Slack et al., 2014; Voight, 2009; Zarrabi-Kashani, 2013), simulation (Lex et al., 2015; Slack et al., 2014), intimidation (Cleland et al., 2018; Deal et al., 2018; Dell et al., 2016; Downward et al., 2023; Johansen & Haugen, 2013; Zarrabi-Kashani, 2013), aggression (Dell et al., 2016; Devìs-Devìs et al., 2021; Downward et al., 2023; Fuente et al., 2019; Voight, 2009; Webb et al., 2020; Zarrabi-Kashani, 2013), hostile crowds (Devìs-Devìs et al., 2021; Fuente et al., 2019; Slack et al., 2014; Zarrabi-Kashani, 2013), verbal abuse (Devìs-Devìs et al., 2021; Fuente et al., 2019; Slack et al., 2014; Zarrabi-Kashani, 2013), discriminatory abuse (Devìs-Devìs et al., 2021; Forbes et al., 2015; Potrac et al., 2022) and physical abuse (Cleland et al., 2015; Cleland et al., 2018; Dawson et al., 2022; Deal et al. 2018; Dell et al., 2016; Devìs-Devìs et al., 2021; Downward et al., 2023; Parsons & Bairner, 2015; Potrac et al., 2022; Slack et al., 2014; Webb, Dicks et al., 2020; Zarrabi-Kashani, 2013). These conflicts were plotted on a spectrum to illustrate which conflicts could carry more risk to referees’ physical and psychological safety (see Figure 2).
The scoping review aimed to map conflicts that referees face, but also the nature of conflict management interventions currently being used. Two sources identified interventions: one implemented (Mathers & Brodie, 2011; Samuel, 2015). Mathers & Brodie’s (2011) intervention for professional referees was a multi-stage model informed by literature that (1) educated referees of the potential benefits of improving mental skills (2) assessed pre-intervention performance, (3) learnt mental skills such as imagery, positive self-talk, relaxation, pre-performance routine and levels of self-confidence, (4) implemented various mental skills and (5) evaluation of the intervention. Samuel’s (2015) five-stage theoretical psychological framework for professional referees’ aims to support referees prepare for their fixtures from (1) when the referee crew is allocated, (2) evaluate specific demands for the fixture, (3) confront inner conflicts and apprehensions, (4) plan physiological, technical, tactical and mental aspects of their game and (5) mentally simulate their performance before carrying out the fixture and evaluating their performance. Neither intervention had conflict management at the forefront of their intentions, but could prove useful as they do provide a theoretical framework for elite referees and demonstrate that psychological skills support for elite referees can improve performance. There were no interventions for amateur referees despite the higher proportion of referees operating at amateur levels.

Figure 2. Spectrum of conflicts faced by football referees.
Referee attrition continues to be a growing problem for organising bodies, some contributing factors have been identified, they are, low enjoyment (Downward et al., 2023; Parsons & Bairner, 2015; Potrac et al., 2022), high amounts of conflict (Cleland et al., 2015; Dell et al., 2016; Downward et al., 2023; Friman et al., 2004; Potrac et al., 2022; Zarrabi-Kashani, 2013) not feeling equipped for the conflicts and or not enough conflict management training (Dell et al., 2016; Mathers & Brodie, 2011; Potrac et al., 2022; Samuel, 2015; Webb et al., 2020) and high amounts of stress (Downward et al., 2023).
Sources demonstrated a similar attention to collecting quantitative data (n = 10) (Cleland et al., 2018; Dawson et al., 2022; Deal et al. 2018; Downward et al., 2023; Fuente et al., 2019; Potrac et al., 2022; Webb et al., 2020; Wolfson & Neave, 2007; Voight, 2009; Zarrabi-Kashani, 2013) and qualitative data (n = 10) (Cleland et al., 2015; Cleland et al., 2018; Deal et al. 2018; Dell et al., 2016; Devìs-Devìs et al., 2021; Forbes et al., 2015; Parsons & Bairner, 2015; Potrac et al., 2022; Webb et al., 2020; Zarrabi-Kashani, 2013) from amateur level referees. The data from amateur referees’ were collected via a range of methods such as, surveys (n = 8) (Cleland et al., 2018; Dawson et al., 2022; Downward et al., 2023; Potrac et al., 2022; Webb et al., 2020; Wolfson & Neave, 2007; Voight, 2009; Zarrabi-Kashani, 2013), observation (n = 1) (Fuente et al., 2019), unstructured interview (n = 1) (Dell et al., 2016), semi-structured interview (n = 6) (Cleland et al., 2015; Deal et al. 2018; Devìs-Devìs et al., 2021; Forbes et al., 2015; Parsons & Bairner, 2015; Potrac et al., 2022), open questionnaire (n = 3) (Cleland et al., 2018; Webb et al., 2020; Zarrabi-Kashani, 2013) and closed questionnaire (n = 1) (Webb et al., 2020). Although useful, research may be missing valuable experiences that could be understood best via other methods, for example group interviewing, ethnography or autoethnography. Remaining papers focused on professional referees which may be useful but, transferability into the amateur game is speculative due to differing pressures, referee abilities and support (Antonie, 2023; Friman et al., 2004; Johansen & Haugen, 2013; Kempa & Rusch, 2019; Lex et al., 2015; Slack et al., 2014).
Discussion
Summary of evidence
The findings indicate that soccer referees of all levels are subject to events that may cause conflicts as part of their role. These conflicts can have varying types of outcome (Antonie, 2023; Cleland et al., 2015; Cleland et al., 2018; Dawson et al., 2022; Deal et al. 2018; Dell et al., 2016; Deyner-Simmons, 2010; Devìs-Devìs et al., 2021; Downward et al., 2023; Friman et al., 2004; Forbes et al., 2015; Fuente et al., 2019; Johansen & Haugen, 2013; Kempa & Rusch, 2019; Lex et al., 2015; Mathers & Brodie, 2011; Mascarenhas et al., 2006; Parsons & Bairner, 2015; Potrac et al., 2022; Samuel, 2015; Slack et al., 2014; Voight, 2009; Webb, Dicks et al., 2020; Wolfson & Neave, 2007; Zarrabi-Kashani, 2013) (see Figure 3). Identifying events that cause conflicts highlights the potential to group conflicts into typologies to understand what type and level of conflict leads most to intention to quit. From this synthesis, the identification of knowledge and skill gaps that may mediate conflicts more effectively emerges as a potential intervention target.
Descriptive statistics from Deal et al. (2018) put forward that there are more misconduct reports submitted by referees at the amateur levels in Canada. The most common

Figure 3. Events, conflicts and outcomes for football referees.

misconducts were foul and abusive language, threatening an official and violent conduct towards an official. If referees are subject to differing amounts of conflict depending on the level at which they operate, any support implemented needs to be reflective of the referee’s needs to ensure that resources are used effectively. Despite the strong evidence of conflicts when performing the role of the referee, there is minimal evidence about their causality, the current approaches of conflict management, and their perceived impact.
This review puts forward that perceived conflicts are contributing to increasing referee attrition rates (Cleland et al., 2015; Dell et al., 2016; Downward et al., 2023; Friman et al., 2004; Potrac et al., 2022; Zarrabi-Kashani, 2013). Dell et al. (2016), Potrac et al. (2022) and Webb et al. (2020) all report that referees felt underprepared from their basic training to manage conflicts when refereeing. In a similar vein, Downward et al. (2023) highlight that managing conflicts can induce stress depending on the type of stressor and the referee’s ability to cope. If there is unpreparedness or perceived inability to cope, this could impact referees’ well-being. If performing the role of referee detriments people’s well-being, it follows that referees’ enjoyment is also likely to decline. Lack of enjoyment is shown to be an important factor in refereeing attrition (Downward et al., 2023; Parsons & Bairner, 2015; Potrac et al., 2022). To use resources most effectively, targeted support during referees’ initial training and or continual professional development events may facilitate conflict management approaches with better outcomes, which may increase wellbeing, enjoyment, and reduce attrition.
Table 4 demonstrates multiple reporting inconsistencies. For example, age was not reported in Antonie (2023); Cleland et al. (2015); Dawson et al. (2022); Deyner- Simmons, (2010); Fuente et al. (2019) and Kempa & Rusch (2019). Of the primary studies that do report age, the mean age of participants was ∼38.6 years
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SPORT AND EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY
(Cleland et al., 2018; Dell et al., 2016; Deal et al. 2018; Devìs-Devìs et al., 2021; Downward et al., 2023; Forbes et al., 2015; Friman et al., 2004; Johansen & Haugen, 2013; Lex et al., 2015; Parsons & Bairner, 2015; Potrac et al., 2022; Slack et al., 2014; Voight, 2009; Webb et al., 2020; Wolfson & Neave, 2007; Zarrabi-Kashani, 2013). Following this, Cleland et al. (2018) and Parsons & Bairner (2015) put forward that a sizeable proportion of younger referees are operating at amateur levels; however, this has not been reflected across primary studies. Paying heed to younger referees’ experiences of officiating youth-level soccer, and or the transition into the amateur adult game may help organisations facilitate development and support, which could negate attrition and safeguard future generations of referees that have the potential to move up to a professional level.
Forbes et al. (2015) and Lex et al. (2015) were the only two studies to have 100% female samples. The rest of the primary sources included had a mean female representation of 11% (Antonie, 2023; Cleland et al., 2015; Cleland et al., 2018; Dawson et al., 2022; Deal et al. 2018; Dell et al., 2016; Deyner-Simmons, 2010; Devìs-Devìs et al., 2021; Downward et al., 2023; Friman et al., 2004; Fuente et al., 2019; Johansen & Haugen, 2013; Kempa & Rusch, 2019; Parsons & Bairner, 2015; Potrac et al., 2022; Slack et al., 2014; Voight, 2009; Webb, Dicks et al., 2020; Wolfson & Neave, 2007; Zarrabi-Kashani, 2013). Failing to explore the unequal ways power, influence and how authority are experienced based on gender could be inhibiting the development of female and male referees officiating in both male and female games. The lack of understanding around gendered power dynamics may not only be hindering referees from managing conflict effectively but also contributing to conflicts themselves. To complement an attentiveness to gendered experiences, a deeper awareness of how race, referee experience and age converge to impact how conflict manifests and is managed would also supplement the development of marginalised groups. Moving forward, rapid attention is needed to explore this demographic intersection to facilitate development in the female and male games.
Finally, with regard to demographics, there is a Western dominance, with most research coming from England, Europe, the USA, Canada and Australia. This overlooks Asia, Africa, and South America. Neglecting a sizable number of soccer-playing countries impacts the universality of findings and diversity of knowledge. This is due to the global nature of soccer and the interrelation of cultural variability around expectations of behaviour in the context of authority, conflict, emotion, and communication. Dubinsky (2024, p. 218) exemplifies this interrelation by acknowledging how the 2022 FIFA World Cup held in Qatar was a “cultural clash between East and West, or the Global North and the Global South”. Oversighting these important factors may increase the risk of interventions being universalised and not culturally applicable. In summary, the lack of detail around whether conflict level and type change depending on age, gender or across cultures could prove vital in understanding how to support referees’ combat conflicts effectively.
The scoping review identified that there have only been psychological interventions developed and put into practice for professional-level referees (Mathers & Brodie, 2011; Samuel, 2015). The findings from Mathers & Brodie (2011) are promising; their mental skill intervention increased the number of international fixtures for participants. This demonstrates the plausibility that referees could benefit from a conflict management intervention. However promising, evidence is still lacking that an intervention of this nature could be replicable with referees performing at amateur levels, as Mathers & Brodie’s study used professional referees with optimal resources. Training could be implemented to support referees with explaining decisions, managing intimidation and aggression, managing disagreements with refereeing colleagues, managing verbal and discriminatory abuse and reducing the risk of physical abuse.
Moving forward in developing an intervention, utility may be found from the training of similar roles to referees in other domains such as law enforcement, healthcare and education (Forbat & Barclay, 2019; Mahvar et al., 2018; Wheller & Morris, 2010). The training of referees in other team sports, for example, Rugby, Hockey or Basketball, may also be drawn upon to increase an intervention’s practicality. Traditional classroom-based teaching could be considered, applying theory such as the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Modes (2008) to underpin sessions and incorporating this by problem-based learning (see Table 5).
Scenario-based training may also be fruitful. Drawing upon peer knowledge exchange and reflective practice guided by a trainer may balance theoretical and ecological applicability (Wheller & Morris, 2010). Training could be integrated as part of referees’ basic training or on annual professional development days. Suggested training formats will need testing against implementation science criteria to evaluate their feasibility, scalability, and cultural adaptability (Fernandez et al., 2019) alongside reflective evaluation to assess training effectiveness against key outcomes, such as referee attrition, referee observer scores or player and coaches’ perceptions of fairness.
Table 5. Proposed application of thomas-kilman model for referee training.
Conflict mode	Behaviours	Scenario	
Avoiding	Ability to withdraw
Ability to sidestep issues
Ability to leave things unresolved
Ability to wait for the right timing	Avoiding player/coach questioning until the right time	
Competing	Arguing or debating
Using position or influence
Standing your ground Asserting your opinions
Stating a clear stance	Coach/player has committed an offence which cannot be managed within the Laws of The Game and must be sanctioned, e.g., red card offence	
Compromising	Negotiating
Finding middle ground
Assessing value
Making concessions	Managing coaches/players using a stepped approach	
Accommodating	Forgetting your desires Selflessness
Ability to give way to others
Obeying orders	Within one’s own refereeing team, listening to referee instructions	
Collaborating	Active listening
Identifying needs and concerns
Non-threatening confrontation
Awareness of the party’s input	Working with referee coaches/observers	
Limitations
Although this scoping review is the first to concentrate on conflict management within soccer refereeing, there are still some limitations. Great care was taken to diligently include all sources that met inclusion criteria, by creating a robust search strategy with an academic librarian who reviewed and advised on the final search strategy before the author independently identified sources for inclusion. To negate positionality bias, the second author, who co-identified sources of evidence, was chosen based on their sporting knowledge, yet their disconnection from soccer refereeing. This was done to compliment reviewer’s positionality as a practising soccer referee. Finally, the scoping review only included sources printed in English, which may increase language bias. Future research must focus on how these issues are experienced in the Global South to avoid a disproportionate amount of data from Western countries.
Conclusions
Referees face perceived conflicts as part of their role, some of which can be a threat to their safety. In the literature, there are calls for better training and support for referees, particularly during a referee’s initial basic training. However, only two studies address intervening, and these focused on professional-level referees; no interventions focus on conflict management at any level of participation. A lack of research, exploring the opinions and experiences of female referees within the female and male games, also warrants urgent research.
Evidence indicates that there are more conflicts for referees to manage at amateur levels. This, mixed with a younger demographic of referees who may have less effective conflict management approaches, could be experiencing compromised wellbeing through high stress and low ability to cope, contributing to referees’ attrition. This adds recruitment demands for organising bodies to enrol less experienced referees who could be supported better during their initial training and refereeing at a level where there are large amounts of conflict. There is an opportunity to intervene in this negative cycle and negate attrition. This could be achieved by embedding conflict management training into initial referee training, and or providing supplementary courses as part of continual professional development events. There is evidence that mental skills interventions work with professional referees, but it is still unclear if a similar approach would support referees at amateur levels.
Future endeavours that add clarity around the antecedents to conflict, conflicts encountered, management approaches and to what outcome may identify training gaps and develop how interventions are designed.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
This scoping review was part of a South East Network of Social Sciences (SENSS) doctoral training partnership funded PhD programme – https://www.senss.ac.uk.
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